Dystopia in the midst of Utopia: Technology and surveillance in Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four and Brooker’s ‘Black Mirror’ (MAY, 2023)
This essay will seek to offer a critical, yet comprehensive, commentary on dystopian fiction, with a slight historicity on the concept of ‘utopia’, through the study of George Orwell’s (1903-1950) critically-acclaimed, dystopian sci-fi novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) and Charlie Brooker’s critically-acclaimed anthology series, Black Mirror (2011 - ). As the field of utopian and dystopian fiction can be complex and extensive, the essay will, therefore, focus on how these hypothetical societies have incorporated, and continue to incorporate, dystopian themes and notions such as the over-reliance of technology and the use of pervasive surveillance.
A dystopia can be defined as a speculative and fictional society characterised by dehumanising and repressive social, political, and environmental conditions which often serves as a cautionary reflection and critique of existing ideologies, institutions and real-world trends. These narratives typically depict an exaggerated and bleak future - an antithesis, in some respect, of a utopia - in which oppressive systems of governance, pervasive surveillance, socioeconomic inequality, environmental degradation, and a denial of individual freedoms (‘as a condition of a collective utopian dream’[1]) are interweaved within the fabric of their existence.
However, because the concept of a dystopia is inherently intertwined with the idea of a utopia, as both worlds provide valuable insights into the complex of imagined, human societies, as well as demonstrate the ‘polarity of human nature’[2] through their display of both good and evil, a commentary on dystopian fiction could not be completed without referring to its paradisical counterpart.
As such, In Building Imaginary Worlds: The Theory and History of Subcreation, Mark J.P Wolf, in his analysis on Plato’s hypothetical society, produces an insightful gaze into this marriage, polarisation and ‘delicate balance’[3], between the two societies.
He writes:
“The Kallipolis, the ideal city of Plato’s Republic, is a secondary world used as a philosophical thought experiment, a world in which the foundation and parameters of a human society are reset and used to debate what would happen if people were to live a certain way. Plato not only describes what he thinks a perfect society would be like (establishing what would later become the utopian tradition), but in Book VIII of his dialogue, he also describes the decay of an imperfect state from an aristocracy to a timocracy, to a plutocracy, to a democracy which grows increasingly chaotic and finally falls into tyranny, thus describing what would later be called a dystopia.”[4]
Wolf’s analysis indicates that, even in seemingly perfect or ideal societies, inherent flaws, oppressive structures, and unintended consequences bubble beneath the surface. Man is not infallible and the slow degradation of a utopianised state is possible. “For we cannot suppose that States are made of ‘oak and rock’, and not out of the human natures which are in them”[5], expresses Plato. Moreso, Glaucon’s reply (“the States are as the men are; they grow out of human characters”[6]) echoes, too, the realisation that the deliverance, or implication, of a utopian vision does not guarantee its permanence. If these ‘seeds of dystopia’ are left unchecked, they have the capability of oscillating an otherwise paradisical society towards a dystopian one.
Germany’s transition from a democratic government (the Weimer Republic) to a totalitarian regime under Adolf Hitler’s Nazi Party in the mid-twentieth century, or the transition of Russia’s monarchist status, following the Russian Revolution, to a socialist state, are both stark reminders of how societies can become infiltrated by, to use Matt Leggatt’s phrase, the ‘slow creep of totalitarianism’[7], and serve as a sobering realisation that no place is an Eden.
Dystopias, once confined to the realm of imagination, have increasingly begun to mirror real-world issues and serve as, to borrow Marina Warner’s term, both ‘cautionary and consolatory’[8] tales about contemporary society. These fictional worlds now bear an unsettling resemblance to our own, shedding light on pressing social, political, and environmental concerns. For instance, Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale warns of the dangers of patriarchal control and the erosion of women's rights, resonating with ongoing debates on gender equality and reproductive rights. Moreover, the recent emergence of dystopian narratives addressing climate change, such as Paolo Bacigalupi's The Water Knife and N.K. Jemisin's The Fifth Season, underscores the imminent ecological challenges faced by our planet. These examples demonstrate how dystopias, unfortunately, have evolved beyond mere flights of fancy to become profound reflections of our contemporary reality, provoking critical engagement with urgent issues that demand our attention and action.
The cynical Ian Malcolm, one of the main characters in Michael Crichton’s sci-fi novel, Jurassic Park, is a character who embodies a sceptical perspective regarding the ill-fated island, and to larger extent, the potential pitfalls of utopian visions. As a mathematician and proponent of chaos theory, Malcolm puts the infallible concept of John Hammond’s ‘utopia’ under the microscope by providing a theory which scrutinises the park’s underlying flaws and unpredictable nature which, consequently, leads to its inevitable downfall. In Malcolm’s polemic and concern about the park’s hubristic attempt to control nature (“inevitably, underlying instabilities [will] begin to appear”[9]), he becomes a cautionary voice about the potential dangers of utopian ideals.
As such, his famous maxim (“Your scientists were so preoccupied with whether or not they could, they didn’t stop to think if they should”[10]) is one that contributes, significantly, to a wider utopian discourse as it encapsulates the criticism of unchecked pursuit of scientific achievement without considering the ethical and moral implications.
Dystopian literature, therefore, should not be conceived as all ‘doom and gloom’ but as nuanced, cautionary narratives that allow us to confront our own anxieties and understand the ramifications of unbridled power and the erosion of personal liberties. “Science fiction has monsters and spaceships”, the Canadian poet, author and literary critic, Margaret Atwood once observed, “[but] speculative fiction could really happen.”[11] As such, dystopian fiction (if they can be called such a thing) instigate conversations about the consequences of human actions before the reality of a dystopia is reached.
However, the examination of dystopia alone can lead to a sense of despair and fatalism. To counterbalance this, the study of utopian literature becomes essential, as it offers visions of ideal societies and aspirations for a better world.
Through the publication of Utopia, Thomas More not only introduced a novel term into the English language but also revolutionised the way people contemplated the disparity between societal aspirations and current realities. More’s text functions as a searing critique on the deficiencies within his contemporary society, offering a pragmatic proposal for an alternative social structure while simultaneously satirising impractical idealism. It is as such that, as referenced in Bill Ashcroft’s study into utopianism, C.S Lewis perceived More’s secondary world as an ‘elaborate joke’[12] - a manifesto of a ‘perfect life’ which reveals itself to be fatally flawed.
It's important to recognise, however, that while More's Utopia is credited with popularising the term, the concept of utopia predates his work through its prevalence across religious and philosophical traditions. Plato's Republic, for instance, written in the 4th century BCE, presents an early vision of an ideal society governed by philosopher-kings. Additionally, in the greats myths and religions of the past, rules were important to keep free-spirited souls in adherence with the common good. “Order is where the people around you act accordingly to well-understood social norms, and remain predictable and cooperative.”[13], writes the psychologist, Jordan Peterson, “It’s the world of social structure, explored territory, and familiarity.” [14]
In Fairy Tales and The Art of Subversion, the literary scholar, Jack Zipes, writes a scathing polemic against religion, linking it towards fairy-tales.
He writes:
“Though many ancient tales might seem to us to be magical, miraculous, fanciful, superstitious, or unreal, people believed them, and they are not much different from people today who believe in religions, miracles, cults, nations, and notions such as ‘free’ democracies that have little basis in reality”[15]
Although not intrinsically linked, his comment aids us in seeing how fairy tales can be linked to utopianism in religion through a shared faith in something beyond empirical evidence or rationality.
The Hebrew Bible and its model of Eden (“Now the Lord God had planted a garden in the east, in Eden; and there he put the man he had formed[16]...) illustrates this marriage of utopia and religion. In its portrayal of an idealised state where union with God was possible - as well as laying the belief that if individuals bow in deference to a creator (if they ‘declare his glory among the nations’[17]), they will be amongst the few to inhabit the promised utopia.
We are, however, writes Norman Doidge, ‘ambivalent about rules, even when we know they are good for us’[18]. The issuance of commandments by God to Moses, rather than suggestions, highlights the weight and authority behind these divine directives. While embracing the concept of individual freedom, it is natural for a free agent to instinctively resist external commands, even if they are intended for their own benefit. Despite author and lecturer, Matthew Leggatt’s observation that ‘any law is a limit to [our] freedom’[19], which encapsulates the fundamental tension between individual freedom and the necessary constraint imposed by legal systems within societies, it is perhaps worth remembering the cautionary tale of the golden calf which serves as a reminder that the absence of rules swiftly leads to enslavement to our own unchecked desires and impulses. Thus, the paradox arises: the imposition of rules, even by a higher authority like God, may initially provoke resistance, but it ultimately safeguards individuals from the bondage of our own destructive inclinations.
Orwell’s novel ‘Nineteen Eighty-Four’, published in 1949, stands as a profound critique of totalitarianism and a stark warning against the erosion of these personal freedoms that were being threatened by the prominent totalitarian movements of the age - fascism and Stalinism. Written in the aftermath of World War II, and during the height of the Cold War, Orwell’s work captures the anxieties and uncertainties prevalent in the mid twentieth century and, as Malcolm R. Thorp writes, was a ‘logical culmination of Orwell’s career as a political writer’[20]. The novel’s setting, a dystopian society ruled by the oppressive regime of Big Brother, reflects Orwell’s acute observations of the totalitarian ideologies that emerged during his years.
As he observed:
“We live in an age which the autonomous individual is ceasing to exist - or perhaps one ought to say, in which the individual is ceasing to have the illusion of being autonomous [...] the whole of modern European literature [...] is built on the concept of intellectual honesty, or if you like to put it that way, on Shakespeare’s maxim, ‘To thine own self be true’ [...] For this is the age of the totalitarian state, which does not and probably cannot allow the individual any freedom whatsoever.”[21]
Orwell's 1984 delves into the political landscape of Oceania through the experiences of its protagonist, Winston Smith. As Winston grapples with an existential crisis during his middle years, he is driven to question the authority of Big Brother and develop an overwhelming aversion towards him. Despite the uncertainty surrounding the actual existence of Big Brother, he, nonetheless, serves as a tangible representation of power within the state. The once trite slogan, "Big Brother is Watching You," takes on a haunting significance as the story progresses. Initially, Winston harbours the belief that the state's control encompasses nearly every aspect of life, yet he clings to the notion that human thoughts remain impervious to the ever-present Thought Police. However, this illusion is swiftly shattered. Winston's rebellious acts, which are now beginning to be meticulously monitored by the Thought Police, lead him to gradually understand the true nature of the state’s power. Subjected to the horrors of psychological manipulation and the dreaded Room 101, he emerges as a mere puppet devoid of independent thought, joining the masses in their unabashed worship of Big Brother. Orwell's masterful depiction not only reveals the oppressive mechanisms of totalitarianism but also serves as a cautionary tale, urging readers to remain vigilant against the encroachment of authoritarian rule and the erosion of individual freedom.
As a democratic socialist himself, Orwell believed in the principles of social justice, equality, and collective welfare; an individual who saw socialism as a means to address the inherent inequalities and injustices within capitalist systems. However, Orwell's experiences during the Spanish Civil War and his disillusionment with Soviet communism led him to question the potential for socialist movements to be co-opted by authoritarian regimes. Despite his reservations, Orwell consistently fought for the rights of the oppressed and marginalised. His writings, such as "Down and Out in Paris and London" and "The Road to Wigan Pier," shed light on the deplorable living conditions and social injustices faced by the working class.
Marcus Garvey’s often quoted maxim (“A people without knowledge of their past [...] is like a tree without roots”[22]) echoes the very malleability of the past, and the need to rewrite it, which The Thought Police, consequently, take advantage of. As Thorp writes, “History must be constantly revised in order to preserve the myth of perfection. Through this process, Big Brother becomes omnipotent.”[23]
This denial of individual is a recurring pattern we witness play out in dystopian contexts where technology assumes a critical role in perpetuating control and eroding privacy; as exemplified by real-world scenarios such as China's widespread implementation of mass surveillance[24].
Orwell’s text accurately anticipated the potential for technology to serve as a tool for totalitarian regimes to monitor and manipulate their citizens. His depiction of the ubiquitous telescreens as devices that transmit propaganda and survey every aspect of individual’s lives (“the telescreen received and transmitted simultaneously [...] any sound that Winston made, above the level of a very low whisper, would be picked up by it...”[25]), eerily mirrors contemporary instances; notably China's implementation of the controversial social credit system and the journalist Liu Hu who sought to challenge the state’s stance on this pervasive surveillance.
Liu Hu's courageous efforts to expose corruption and challenge the government's narrative exemplifies the resilience of individuals striving to safeguard civil liberties in the face of oppressive technological control. By drawing parallels between Orwell's fictional world and real-world instances, like Liu Hu's activism, it becomes evident that technology-driven surveillance, if left unchecked, poses significant threats to personal freedoms and democratic principles. These examples serve as potent reminders of the pressing need to critically examine the consequences of technology's encroachment on privacy and to advocate for safeguards that protect individual rights in an increasingly dystopian landscape.
It may be significant to note that, in dystopian texts, the use of a diary serves as a powerful literary device to highlight the significance of personal expression and individualism in the face of oppressive regimes.
On a fundamental level, the diary is a reflection of the protagonist’s inner thoughts, emotions, and experiences. By adopting the diary format (as is the case in texts such as Yoko Ogawa’s Memory Police, Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid Tale, The Diary of Anne Frank and Nineteen Eighty-Four) these narratives offer an intimate and personal perspective on the dystopian world, allowing readers to delve into the protagonist's psyche and witness their struggle for survival, freedom, and self-identity. By recording their thoughts and experiences, individuals assert their existence and preserve their individuality, even when the regime seeks to erase it.
The act of keeping a diary, then, becomes a form of resistance. It is an assertion of personal agency, a way for the protagonist to reclaim their voice and maintain a sense of self in the face of dehumanising circumstances.
Not all utopian visions, however, are free from problematic elements. More’s Utopia, a text which envisions a fictional island, inhabited by a self-contained community, and one which is often regarded an idealistic vision of an equitable society, is, on closer examination, a text that contains elements that align with fascist tendencies through its strict adherence to uniformity and conformity. In Vivien Greene’s commentary on More’s Utopia and Orwell’s Nineteen-Eighty-Four she describes how, despite them being categorised separately, both Orwell’s and More’s texts are ‘characterised by oppressive canons and the suffocation of independent thought’[26]. As such the seemingly egalitarian principles within Utopia raises questions about the suppression of individuality and the potential dangers of absolute conformity in the pursuit of an ideal society.
Among the notable contributions to the discourse on technology and surveillance is Charlie Brooker’s dystopian series, ‘Black Mirror’, which presents a disturbing and thought-provoking vision of a ‘near-future world’ (although some may argue that it has become more of a documentary than speculative fiction) that is profoundly affected by technological advancements.
‘Black Mirror’, in some capacity, serves as a double-edged sword, capable of empowering individuals while simultaneously exposing them to unprecedented vulnerabilities. The series invites viewers to confront uncomfortable scenarios that explore the fine line between progress and regression, and to contemplate the potential erosion of personal freedoms in the face of ever-advancing surveillance technologies. The episodes are, as Charlie Brooker once stated, ‘extrapolations of whatever [is] already happening’[27].
‘Nosedive’, the first episode of the show’s third season, presents a world where individuals’ social status is determined by constant ratings given by others. In a society that has, itself, adopted a pervasive ratings system (think the likes of Uber where passengers, and drivers, must now entertain a perfunctory dialogue because of the looming threat of being rated lower), the episode’s nuanced critique on the potential consequences of a society driven by reputation-based systems could not be any more timely or relevant.
The episode opens in a suburban, idealised American neighbourhood, where calm piano music plays in the backdrop and where houses are guarded by white, picket fences. If one thing is obvious: This is twentieth-century America. This is today. From Lacie Pound’s, the episode’s protagonist, daily interactions with the shopkeepers and neighbours, to the role of technology in being able to identify strangers by going through their social media posts, a first-time viewer can be forgiven for believing that this is the making of a utopia. However, while the rating system initially appears to foster a sense of connection, it ultimately exacerbates the fragmentation of society.
“You know our prime influencer’s programme?”[28], asks the estate agent to Lacie. “Do I qualify for that?”[29], Lacie asks, curiously. “No. No you don’t. We’d need you a four-five. Hit four-five, and there’s a twenty-percent discount”[30].
The episode’s portrayal of a world governed by artificial social constructs prompts us to reflect on the implications of our own digital lives and the potential consequences of prioritising online validation over genuine human connections.
Throughout history, utopias have flourished in the realms of human imagination, offering glimpses of a society shaped by the inherent goodness of human nature. Various religious traditions have played a significant role in crafting these visions. Christianity, for instance, envisions paradisiacal settings like the Garden of Eden and Heaven, where humanity exists in a state devoid of evil, having been cleansed and purified by the divine (“And he carried me away in the Spirit to a mountain great and high, and showed me the Holy City [...] coming down out of Heaven from God”[31]). Conversely, religion has also explored the depths of human wickedness through the purest embodiment of dystopia: Hell.
In this manner, religious narratives encompass both utopian and dystopian dimensions, depicting contrasting manifestations of human nature and its potential consequences.
By exploring both dystopian and utopian literature, scholars can engage in a holistic analysis of human societies, critically evaluating the flaws of the present while envisioning transformative possibilities. The symbiotic relationship between dystopia and utopia fosters a nuanced understanding of the complexities of human existence, encouraging us to learn from the perils of dystopia and strive towards the ideals of utopia.
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FOOTNOTES:
[1] Bill Ashcroft, ‘The ambiguous necessity of utopia’ in Utopianism in Postcolonial Literatures (New York: Routledge, 2017), 75.
[2] Katrina Brown, April 4th 2019, ‘Utopias and Dystopias: The Potential of Human Nature’, https://blogs.bsu.edu/dlr/2019/04/04/utopias-and-dystopias-the-potential-of-human-nature/
[3] Bill Ashcroft, ‘Introduction’ in Utopianism in Postcolonial Literatures (New York: Routledge, 2017), 15.
[4] Mark J.P. Wolf, ‘A History of Imaginary Worlds’ in Building Imaginary Worlds: The Theory and History of Subcreation (New York: Routledge, 2012), 69.
[5] Plato, The Republic, trans. Benjamin Jowett (United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 1908), 287.
[6] Plato, The Republic, 287.
[7] Matt Leggatt, ‘Module Introduction: Historicizing Utopia’, Lecture, University of Winchester, 2023.
[8] Marina Warner, ‘Fairy Tale: A Very Short Introduction | Marina Warner | Talks at Google |’, 59:35, posted by Talks at Google, April 18th, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zop-QPDlnFw&t=1s
[9] Michael Crichton, Jurassic Park (Great Britain: Arrow Books, 2015), 207.
[10] Jurassic Park, directed by Steven Spielberg, Universal Pictures, 1993, Feature Film.
[11] Robert Potts, ‘Light in the wilderness’, The Guardian, 26th April 2003, accessed 15th May 2023. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/apr/26/fiction.margaretatwood
[12] Bill Ashcroft, ‘Introduction’ in Utopianism in Postcolonial Literatures (New York: Routledge, 2017), 1.
[13] Jordan Peterson, ‘Foreword’, in Twelve Rules for Life (Great Britain: Allen Lane, 2018), 28.
[14] Peterson, ‘Foreword’, 28.
[15] Jack Zipes, Fairy Tales and The Art of Subversion (United States: Routledge, 2012), 9.
[16] Genesis 2:8-9 (NIV)
[17] Psalm 96:3 (NIV)
[18] Norman Doidge, ‘Foreword’, in Twelve Rules for Life, Jordan Peterson (Great Britain: Allen Lane, 2018), 8.
[19] Matt Leggatt, ‘Module Introduction: Historicizing Utopia’, Lecture, University of Winchester, 2023.
[20] Malcolm R. Thorp, ‘The Dynamics of Terror in Orwell’s 1984’, Brigham Young University Studies 24:1 (1984): 4.
[21] George Orwell, The Complete Works: Novels, Memoirs, Poetry, Essays, Book Reviews & Articles: 1984, Animal Farm, Down and Out in Paris and London, Prophecies of Fascism (N.P: e-artnow, 2021), accessed 19th May 2023,.https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/_/vN5hEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0
[22] Maurice Mcleod, Linda Bellos and Chante Joseph. “Does it matter if Black History Month is rebranded ‘Diversity Month’?” The Guardian, 3rd October 2018, accessed 26th May 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/oct/03/councils-rebranding-black-history-month-london-diversity
[23] Malcolm R. Thorp, ‘The Dynamics of Terror in Orwell’s 1984’, Brigham Young University Studies 24:1 (1984): 12.
[24] John Harris, ‘The tyranny of algorithms is part of our lives: soon they could rate everything we do’ The Guardian, 5th March 2018, accessed 18th May 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/mar/05/algorithms-rate-credit-scores-finances-data
[25] George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four (Great Britain: HarperCollins, 2021), 4.
[26] Vivien Greene, ‘Utopia/Dystopia’. The University of Chicago Press 25:2 (2011): 2, accessed 19th May 2023, https://doi.org/10.1086/661960
[27] Zoe Williams, ‘Charlie Brooker: ‘Mr Dystopia? That makes me sound like a wrestler’, The Guardian, 21st February 2022, accessed 17th May 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2022/feb/21/charlie-brooker-interview-black-mirror-cat-burglar
[28] Black Mirror, Nosedive, Episode 1, Season 3, written by Charlie Brooker, Rashida Jones, and Michael Schur. Directed by Joe Wright. Netflix. October 21st, 2016.
[29] Black Mirror, Nosedive.
[30] Black Mirror, Nosedive.
[31]Revelation 21:10-14, NIV
