Didacticism In Children’s Literature (MAY, 2023)
The realm of children’s literature is an extraordinary, and yet contentious, body of writing. And ever since its emergence in the mid-eighteenth century as a distinctive area of writing (although some critics may contend with setting this date back much earlier), authors, such as Mary Cooper and Samuel Richardson, were beginning to adopt this new and didactically-charged ‘genre’ of writing with the intent to educate and entertain demographics and social classes previously unrecognised.
As literacy became more widespread, and the arrival of mass printing allowed folktales, fairy tales, myths and fables to be textually documented, authors were able to, not just preserve the oral tradition within the pages of the chapbook or the penny dreadful but, remove and edit the moral codes contained within the tales, and weave in their own religious and political inclinations.
This process was carried out with the intent of socialising children according to the social and cultural code of that particular period.
But despite a brief understanding of its historicity, and the factors that predicated its emergence, trying to define children’s literature can prove complex.
In one sense, it can be defined as any written or visual material that is produced specifically for children. The material, of course, includes, but is not limited to, works of fiction, non-fiction, poetry, and drama, as well as illustrated books, comics, and graphic novels - all of which are credible and unique forms that exist within the interplay of written and visual code.
And yet, it is in this genre’s refusal to be labelled, its identity and existence within oral, pictorial and the literary mediums, that distinguishes it as a complex, nuanced and multi-layered area of interest.
Didacticism in Children’s Literature will serve as a comprehensive study into this intricate, yet underappreciated, category of literature. Beginning with an introduction into children’s literature; its definition, its cultural importance, its controversies and, although it may sound condescending, how to read it.
This essay will, then, trail into the eighteenth and nineteenth century, a significant period into its history, and one in which the literary scholar, Marina Warner, describes as the ‘epicentre of children’s literature’[1].
Using the foundational texts of ‘The Histoires ou Contes du temps passe, avec des moralities’ (1697), written by Charles Perrault, and ‘Kinder- und Hausmärchen’ (1812), written by the Brothers Grimm, this essay will look at their cultural significance and an understanding of them through the lens of gender, before bridging into anthropomorphism, its relation to racial concepts, and its significance within this area of writing.
Didacticism, a term referring to the ‘art of imparting moral and ethical lessons through literature’[2], finds its roots in the Greek word “διδακτικός” (“Didaktikós”) meaning ‘apt at teaching’ or ‘related to teaching’. According to Kain and Wardle (2017), the origins of didacticism can be traced back to Ancient Greek and Roman literature, particularly in works such as Plato’s “Republic” (c. 380 BCE) and Aristotle’s “Nicomachean Ethics” (c. 350 BCE), which sought to, not just educate readers about philosophy and ethics but, critically engage readers on the big questions facing life such as the nature of justice and the ideal society.
Didacticism, then, has since been a common feature of literature, particularly in the form of fables, parables, and other instructional narratives. In the context of children’s literature, it has been used to teach young readers about morality, mandate social norms and code of behaviour, through its ‘subtle and complex process’[3] of imparting information. The didactic code has also been employed to reinforce gender roles (and invert them - as we shall come to see later with feminist reiterations) within these classic texts.
And, yet, centuries after it was formally recognised, children’s literature continues to flourish. Possessing a unique capability of being both an effective pedagogical tool and a lucrative distributor of mass entertainment.
Its beloved characters - such as Snow White, Paddington Bear, Fantastic Mr Fox, and The Gruffalo - are indelible parts of our collective consciousness, tying us not only to the world of childhood and narrative, but also to fundamental myths and archetypes.
“Fairy tales are more than escapist entertainment”[4], Neil Gaiman once stated in The Guardian. “[...] and they are more than cultural artifacts. We need fairy tales because we need to make sense of a confusing and often terrifying world”[5].
But despite its successes, its role in imparting educational and moral rectitude, its universal appeal, and its ability to captivate, engross and provide mass entertainment to its readers, children’s literature is still often viewed as an inferior literary form.
As Maria Nikolajeva, the literary critic, writes:
“The very fact that [children’s literature] is aimed at children imposes certain limitations, such as the need for age-appropriate content and the avoidance of controversial or challenging themes. This can sometimes result in oversimplified or formulaic narratives that reinforce stereotypes and fail to engage young readers in a meaningful way...”[6]
According to Nikolajeva, Children’s literature has limited capacity, in comparison to its literary counterpart, as it reduces, and sanitises, ideas that could otherwise be addressed explicitly to an adult reader. But Nikolajeva’s view is, in itself, limiting as it raises questions (‘who gets to decide what children read?’ ... ‘who gets to determine the text’s intrinsic worth?’) on the integrity and value of this distinctive area of writing:
It is a view that can, perhaps, be perceived as ‘adultist’, as it reinforces this idea that the adult is inherently superior to the child. Instead, they are the authoritarive, Orwellian figure, the creator and gatekeeper of meaning, who creates, controls, and ensures the transmission of approved didactic codes upon its subordinates. The child is not a free agent, but a subject. One who is expected to bow in deference to the adult, accepting of the moral codes that are placed before them.
The mental faculties of the child, however, should not be underestimated, nor should they be discouraged from extracting their own individualised meaning from a text. Roland Barthes, The French literary theorist, is a figure who polemicised against the traditional approach of literary criticism. His work, which continuously challenges the idea of the ‘Author-God’ is one, therefore, relevant to the discussion of ‘how to read children’s literature’.
He writes, “a text consists of multiple writings [...] and there is one place where this multiplicity is collected, united, and this place is not the author [...], but the reader.”[7]
What Barthes is illustrating is that the meaning of a text is not fixed or predetermined by its author, but is instead created through the reader’s engagement with the text. The author’s intention, he argues, is irrelevant when it comes to interpretation. The (child) reader, therefore, is free to find multiple meanings in the same words and symbols. Barthes’ theory, then, exists in opposition with those of Nikolojeva’s, and all those who seek to defame children’s literature, as he encourages readers to embrace the ambiguity and complexity of language rather than trying to reduce it to a single, fixed meaning.
In his essay On Making Noise, part of an anthology of essays, written by male writers on the topic of fairy tales, David J. Schwartz echoes this sentiment by stating that “once we become adults it is tempting to reduce stories [to symbols]”[8].
A socialist may read ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’ as an allegory on Proletarian rage, and a Marxist may read the titular heroine of ‘Cinderella’ as a tale of a proletariat, exploited and controlled by the aristocracy. Both readings would be true. But in our need to think critically, there is a tendency to forget the foundational, simplistic essence, of these tales which is to give joy, hope and to procure imagination.
The texts of children’s literature are, even themselves, proponents of Barthes’ idea on the multiplicity of meaning, as they hold capacity to address both the child and adult reader. Peter Hunt defines it as a ‘presence of two readerships’[9]; an ability for an author, whether consciously or unconsciously, to embrace a dual audience in the production and reception of the text.
This idea of a dual audience is one that Barbara Wall observed:
“First [authors] may write... for a single audience, using single address; their narrators will address child narratees... showing no consciousness that adults too may read the work... secondly, they may write for a double audience, using double address...;their narrators will address child narratees... and will also address adults, either overtly... or covertly, as the narrator deliberately exploits the ignorance of the implied child reader and attempts to entertain an implied adult reader by making jokes which are funny primarily because children will not understand them. Thirdly, they may write for a dual audience... More usually... writers who command a dual audience do so because of the nature and strength of their performance... confidentially sharing a story in a way that allows adult narrator and child narratee a conjunction of interests.[10]
Kenneth Grahame’s timeless classic ‘The Wind in the Willows’, for example, about a band of four anthropomorphising animals: Mole, Rat, Toad, and Badger, and C.S Lewis’ Narnia series, both of which are marketed as ‘children’s novels’, are testament not only to children’s literature’s reluctance to be confined and restricted, but of its nuanced capability of addressing multiple audiences and its evergreen appeal which extends also to the adult.
C.S Lewis’ famous dictum (“I am almost inclined to set up as canon that a children’s book which is enjoyed only by children is a bad children’s story”[11]), which is so often expressed in support of children’s literature, expresses the author’s frustration with the way this body of text has been, and continues to be, perceived.
It is time that these texts are no longer reduced as ‘cheap thrill’, but recognised for their pedagogical function in amplifying ethical dialogue and as a proponent in the socialisation process of children.
Once Upon a Time:
Fairy tales are perhaps one of the most recognised, and beloved, subgenres of children’s literature. From the earliest recorded versions of stories like “Cinderella” and “Little Red Riding Hood”, to contemporary fairy tales, like Neil Gaiman’s “The Sleeper and the Spindle” (2013), fairy tales continue to capture the imagination of their readers, provoke wonder and offer psychological insights into the human condition.
They are the stories we are most familiar with; the tales we first hear, and their ease of transmission into the cinematic mode often makes them amongst the first stories that we will, consequently, watch. They function, as Marina Warner states, as being both ‘cautionary and consolatory’[12].
And from the opening line of ‘once upon a time...’, to the recurring character archetypes of the tyrannical parent, the malignant stepmother (Cinderella, Snow White), the handsome and noble prince (who often plays the active male), the damsel in distress (who often plays the passive female) and the poor and marginalised protagonist, who triumphs against the powers-that-be, we see how fairy tales often act as commentaries; warning us, and giving us hope, against the dangers of social exclusion, marginalisation, conformity, social inequality and oppressive systems and values.
And whether they are in the traditional landscape of the enchanted forest or the brooding castle, fairy tales work as social commentators by inviting us to leave behind our reality and step into secondary worlds. Worlds that are, as Zipes observes, “mirrors that reflect and refract our own world [and act] as allegories that dramatize social, psychological, and spiritual truth” [13].
These secondary worlds, often depicted as a fantastical, surreal or an exaggerated antithesis of our own, are employed to, not only critique and comment on the social, cultural and political conditions of the real world, but serve as a place to explore our deepest fears, desires, and aspirations - made possible by its supposed separation of reality.
Although not categorised as a fairy tale as such, The Chronicles of Narnia, by C.S Lewis, is a notable example of the secondary world in literature due to its reflection of Christian themes and values.
In The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, Aslan, the Christ-like figure, sacrifices himself for Edmund and the future of the eponymous realm. As the White Witch prepares to kill the human protagonist, Aslan emerges and, offering himself in Edmund’s place, is escorted to the Stone Table where he is, ultimately, killed by the witch’s minions.
Aslan’s longsuffering and obedience, even in the face of his own death, is strikingly similar to the obedience of Jesus in the moments before his crucifixion (“...Going a little farther, he fell with his face to the ground and prayed, ‘My Father, if it is possible, may this cup be taken from me. Yet not as I will, but as you will”[14]).
Lewis himself acknowledged this connection, noting that “Since Narnia is a world of talking beasts, I thought He [Jesus] would become a talking beast there, as He became a man here.”[15]
As a Christian author, Lewis was able to present a vision of Christianity in a manner that may not have been received with the same warmth if the same didactic code - of faith, morality, and Christian ideals - was preached, in its naked state, at the lectern.
C.S. Lewis’ method of weaving the Christian message alongside the fantasy code can be understood in relation to the sociohistorical context of the socialisation process.
As quoted in Setting Standards for Civilization Through Fairy Tales, Norbert Elias writes:
“Even in civilized society no human being comes into the world socialized, and the individual civilizing process that he compulsorily undergoes is a function of the social civilizing process [..] Since in our society each human being is exposed from the first moment of life to the influence and the moulding of civilized grown-ups, he must indeed pass through a civilizing process in order to reach the standard attained by his society in the course of its history [...] through the individual historical phases of the social civilizing process”.
Zipes argues that fairy tales are not just an important tool for transmitting cultural values and beliefs to children, but a pedagogical tool of teaching the child the functions of society and ‘how to behave within it’[16].
However, one of the key arguments that Zipes makes is that fairy tales are not just innocent stories meant to entertain children, but are in fact a reflection of the cultural and societal norms of the time in which they were written. Zipes asserts that fairy tales often contain hidden meanings and subversive messages that challenge dominant cultural narratives and promote social and political change.
Perrault and The Brothers Grimm: Didactic codes and feminist reversions.
Two of the most influential figures in the history of fairy tales, and their respective works, would be Charles Perrault and Histoires et Contes du temps passe (Tales of Past Times, 1697) and, a little later, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm and their collection of fairy tales Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Children’s and Household Tales, 1812-57).
The fairy tales of Charles Perrault were written and published in a specific historical and political context in seventeenth century France. Perrault was a member of the French literary and cultural elite, and his fairy tales, told in the courtly and salon settings, reflected the values and concerns of this social class. One important context for Perrault's fairy tales was the reign of Louis XIV, who sought to centralise power in France and promote the arts as a means of promoting the prestige of the monarchy. Perrault's fairy tales, with their emphasis on manners, etiquette, and courtly life, can be seen as reflecting this cultural agenda.
Many of the tales also owe their origins to the Italian tales of Straparola and Basile. For instance, scholars have suggested that “Cinderella” may have been influenced by Straparola’s “Cenerentola”, while Basile's "The Tale of Tales" has been cited as a possible precursor to "Puss in Boots”. However, Perrault made significant alterations to these stories in order to align them with the values and sensibilities of the French aristocracy, making it challenging to trace direct links between his tales and their Italian predecessors.
In the context of the time, the French literary and cultural elite were concerned with questions of moral education and the cultivation of good manners and etiquette. Perrault's fairy tales were therefore part of a larger project of moral instruction and cultural refinement. His tales often contained explicit moral lessons, such as the dangers of vanity and the importance of humility.
However, although his fairy tales emphasise a virtuous lifestyle, and belong to a literary body of work where women feature more than men, they are also known for reinforcing ‘limiting and often oppressive norms’, in the context of gender, as well as reflecting, and not challenging, the dominant cultural attitudes of the time.
This division based on gender becomes apparent when we consider the eight prose fairy tales found in Histoires ou contes du temps passé that act as behavioural models for children. Specifically, "Sleeping Beauty", "Little Red Riding Hood", "Blue Beard", "The Fairies", and "Cinderella" can be seen as directly targeting female audiences, while "Puss in Boots", "Ricky of the Tuft", and "Little Tom Thumb" are geared towards males. Through an analysis of the exemplary qualities that differentiate the heroines from the heroes, it is evident that Perrault incorporated notions of civilité into his tales.
The fairy tale "Little Red Riding Hood," the sole cautionary tale in the collection, concludes on a disheartening note but nonetheless serves as a behavioural archetype for young girls. Through the expression of her imagination, the eponymous character unwittingly brings about the demise of both her grandmother and herself, providing the reader with a negative example of what constitutes acceptable conduct. The moral of the tale conveys that attractive, well-mannered, and courteous young girls must refrain from conversing with unfamiliar individuals or indulging their impulses, lest they fall prey to violation and consumption by wolves. Put differently, these young girls must exercise restraint over their natural and sexual urges, or else their own sensuality will manifest as a perilous wolf that devours them.
The fairy tale "Blue Beard" bears a message akin to its counterparts, albeit with the distinction that the wife of Blue Beard is spared by virtue of recognizing her mistake and offering her prayers. The heroine, who is both comely and genteel, succumbs to her curiosity and thus violates the terms of her husband's trust. The moral of the story contends that women's inquisitiveness and imagination are sinful, and that self-restraint is essential. This lesson is tempered by a second moral that ironically suggests a shift in the dynamic between men and women, whereby men are no longer the tyrannical beings they once were, and women have attained a greater degree of influence. Nonetheless, women's roles remain circumscribed by the expectation of meekness and self-regulation.
As Jack Zipes observes:
“Perrault’s fairy tales, which ‘elevate’ heroines, reveal that he had a distinctly limited view of women. His ideal ‘femme civilisee’ of upper-class society, the composite female is beautiful, polite, graceful, industrious, and properly groomed and knows how to control herself at all times. If she fails the obedience test, she is punished, as in Red Riding Hood’s case, but this girl’s fate is exceptional and belongs to a particular genre of warning tales, which I shall discuss later in more detail. The task confronted by Perrault’s model female is to show reserve and patience; that is, she must be passive until the right man comes along to recognise her virtues and marry her. She lives only through the male and for marriage. The male acts, the female waits. She must cloak her instinctual drives in polite speech, correct manners, and elegant clothes. If she is allowed to reveal anything it is to demonstrate how submissive she can be”[17]
The Brothers Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm, were German scholars who collected and published their famous collection of fairy tales in the early nineteenth century. Their fairy tales were written and published in a period when Germany was threatened by the forces of modernisation and urbanisation brought on, primarily, by the industrial revolution.
The Brothers saw their fairy tales as a means of capturing and preserving the traditions of the ‘volk’, while also imparting both moral teachings - such as hard work, honesty, and kindness - to their readers alongside a sense of national identity and pride.
The reasoning behind their tales is also found in the preface to the second edition of their collection, where they state: “Our primary concern was to gather the stories as completely as possible from all quarters and to produce a reliable and unadulterated record of them for posterity. In doing so, we hoped to preserve a unique and precious aspect of our cultural heritage”[18]
The moral teachings within the Brothers Grimm's fairy tales, however, are often implicit, rather than explicit. For example, their tale "The Golden Goose" teaches the value of generosity and kindness, as the protagonist is rewarded for sharing his wealth with others. Similarly, their tale "The Bremen Town Musicians" promotes the idea of mutual aid and cooperation among individuals who are marginalized or disenfranchised.
The tales of Perrault and the Brothers Grimm, and the tales that served as a basis of their own work, owed its chances on survival by means of oral transmission, typically by the working-class - which saw it as a carrier of moral imperatives, culture and traditions. Oral tradition has allowed fairy tales to evolve and adapt over time. And as these stories were retold, and new moral teachings were added, they underwent changes in plot, character and theme through the involvement, and corruption, of new additions.
Feminist scholars and writers are one demographic who have long engaged in the project of reimagining fairy tales as a means of challenging gender roles and power structures.
One of the earliest examples of this approach can be seen in Anne Sexton's "Transformations" (1971), a collection of poems that reinterprets the tales of the Brothers Grimm from a feminist perspective. More recently, writers such as Angela Carter, Marina Warner, and Emma Donoghue have used the form to critique patriarchal norms and explore issues of gender and sexuality. In Carter's "The Bloody Chamber" (1979), for example, she transforms the traditional fairy tale of "Bluebeard" into a feminist parable that highlights the dangers of male violence and the importance of female agency.
Similarly, in Donoghue's "Kissing the Witch" (1997), she reimagines classic tales such as "Snow White" and "Cinderella" to explore themes of desire, identity, and resistance.
On one hand, oral tradition, and the subversion of traditional fairy tales by feminist writers, can be seen as preserving and ensuring that the didactic code of the classical texts survive into new cultures and societies. But, on the other hand, the constant reiterations, removal and inclusion of new moral codes, could be viewed as a demarcation of the ‘original’.
Anthropomorphism in children’s literature:
In contemporary society, there is a significant emphasis on written texts as a means of structuring thought, evaluating beliefs, conveying cultural values, and shaping the behaviour and attitudes of individuals. Given the ubiquity of literary materials, it is unsurprising that many individuals can recall a beloved childhood story from their formative years. Amidst the vast array of stories that children are exposed to, there is often a particular narrative that resonates more profoundly with an individual than others. Such a story that may have struck an emotional chord, articulated a deeply felt need, concern, or set of values in a particularly poignant way. The enduring appeal of these narratives manifests in their ability to remain vividly present in the minds of their audience. Exposure to such stories may serve as a catalyst for recollection of bygone experiences and emotions that may have lapsed into obscurity. Through this process, individuals are able to reconstruct the minutiae of their former selves, including their attitudes, beliefs, and values, as well as their evolving relationships with others and the world around them.
The affinity that children possess for animals is a common phenomenon, one that is often reflected in the presence of pets within their homes and daily lives. Whether situated in a bustling metropolis, a suburban community, or the bucolic countryside, children are surrounded by a diverse array of fauna. In turn, it is perhaps unsurprising that animal characters frequently populate the narratives that we craft for them. However, when these creatures transcend their natural capacities and begin to engage in human-like activities, such as learning to read or scheming, the stories in which they appear transcend the realm of mere verisimilitude and are instead characterized by a deliberate distortion of reality.
Simply put, anthropomorphism refers to the literary technique of ascribing human-like qualities, characteristics, and behaviours to non-human characters such as animals, objects, or natural forces.
Claude Lévi-Strauss, a prominent French anthropologist, wrote extensively about the relationships between humans and animals across cultures. In his work, he argued that animals occupy a central position in human consciousness and cultural systems, and that they are often used to symbolize important social and cultural values. His famous maxim (that animals are “good to think with”[19]) is often used to demonstrate how animals can serve as important symbolic objects, taking the place of abstract concepts and relationships, such as social hierarchy or the nature of good and evil, ultimately helping humans make sense of the world.
By adopting animals as a kind of “language” to convey these ideas, humans are able to communicate complex cultural concepts in a way that is both accessible and memorable.
Anthropomorphism is a pervasive aspect of adult cognition and decision-making. When confronted with uncertainty and high stakes, humans often project human motives and actions onto objects and animals, and adjust their behaviour accordingly. This tendency is reflected in phenomena such as seeing faces in inanimate objects, naming storms, and investing in bull or bear markets. Aesop's fables, which feature animals acting out human traits and morals, reflect a longstanding tradition of using anthropomorphism to convey social commentary and moral lessons. Aesop's fables have proved so enduring that many have been adapted for children's literature, serving as a testament to the power and universality of this storytelling technique.
George Orwell’s Animal Farm, is an anthropomorphic novel that tells the story of a group of farm animals who overthrow their human owner and establish a society ran by the animals themselves. The story is an allegory of the Russian Revolution and the rise of Stalinism in the Soviet Union. The anthropomorphised animals, such as pigs, horses, and dogs, represent historical figures such as Leon Trotsky, Joseph Stalin, and Vladimir Lenin. By using animals to represent political leaders, Orwell was able to comment on the corruption and betrayal, that so often accompanies political revolutions, and the dangers of authoritarianism.
Political cartoonists have also demonstrated a keen understanding of the power of anthropomorphism. A quick perusal of any newspaper's editorial section will reveal a world globe with legs and arms, a virus molecule with an evil grin, or a politician anthropomorphised as a pig. By utilizing animals as stand-ins for political, religious, social, or personal issues, political cartoonists can create a degree of intellectual and psychological separation that enables them to explore sensitive topics with greater objectivity. This technique allows for critical examination of topics that may be too discomforting to address directly.
Prior to the mid-eighteenth century, the concept of childhood as a distinct and protected phase of life did not exist in Western society. Children were viewed as miniature adults and were expected to work alongside their parents as soon as they were physically able. Clothing for children often resembled adult clothing, and childhood was seen as a brief and insignificant period of life that required little special attention or protection. However, with the rise of a middle and merchant class, more individuals were able to attain leisure time and devote attention to the education and upbringing of their children. As a result, new ideas emerged regarding the importance of childhood as a time of growth and development that required protection and guidance. Play was increasingly viewed as an essential component of childhood, allowing children to practice skills and explore the world in a safe and enjoyable manner. To enhance the appeal of children's literature and encourage reading for pleasure, animals with human-like qualities began to appear in books. Anthropomorphism provided a means of stimulating children's imagination, making books more appealing, and conveying moral lessons in an entertaining manner.
Aesop's fable "The Tortoise and The Hare" is a classic example of one such tale. The fable tells the story of a hare, who is overconfident and takes his speed for granted, and a tortoise, who is slow but persistent. In the end, the tortoise wins the race by maintaining a steady and consistent pace.
This moral is encapsulated in the fable's concluding line: "Slow and steady wins the race"[20]
The historical and social context of this fable is important in understanding its underlying message. It is believed that Aesop, a Greek slave, lived in the sixth century BCE and used fables to criticise the ruling class and to provide moral lessons to the common people. The tortoise and the hare fable reflects the Greek values of hard work and perseverance, as well as the belief that the ‘race’ of life is won by those who are steady and persistent. This fable also serves as a reminder that arrogance and overconfidence can lead to downfall.
As a political commentary, it can be viewed as an allegory on the social and political hierarchies of Ancient Greece. The hare, who represents the aristocracy, is initially dismissive of the tortoise, who represents the lower classes. However, the tortoise's victory shows that even those who are seemingly weak and powerless can achieve success through persistence and determination. This message may have resonated with the lower classes, as is often the case with fables and fairy tales, who were oppressed by the ruling elite.
However, some critics have noted that anthropomorphism in children's literature can reinforce gender and racial stereotypes and perpetuate social norms that are harmful or discriminatory.
As quoted in Racial Abstraction and Species Difference: Anthropomorphic Animals in “Multicultural” Children’s Literature:
“ “I did not like when you drew the Indian like a bear,” a New York public school student wrote to children’s book author and illustrator Richard Scarry. “Indians do not look like a bear and Indians do not put feathers on their heads, only on special occasions.” Scary replied, “I am sorry that you don’t like the Indian I drew in the Best Word Book Ever. I drew him as a bear because I LIKE bears and I LIKE Indians” ” [21]
While the use of anthropomorphised animals as racial surrogates in children's literature has been utilised as a means to celebrate human diversity, it is crucial to note that authors should refrain from, or better consider, employing these characters in a manner that perpetuates harmful racial stereotypes.
However, for the vast majority of work, anthropomorphic characters - such as the sly fox, the hardworking ant, and the slow-moving tortoise - have been responsibly used to ‘transcend cultural, temporal, and ethnic boundaries’[22], as well as social and political ideologies. Communicating with readers on a level beyond any physical differences.
In the early drafts of “Mr Mole and the Strawberry Sardoodledom”, an anthropomorphic tale about a famous ice-cream mole who has to learn how to combat jealousy, Mr Mole’s initial characterisation was in Mr Whippy; a white protagonist.
When I considered its potential readership and its commercial viability, and significantly, the ethical dilemma I was facing, considering that I, a person of mixed-race heritage, was penning a story about something so far removed from my experience, Mr Whippy - and his quintessential ‘Britishness’ - underwent two more stages in his character development: First he became a black protagonist, surrounded by an Islamic culture. And then, after an internal discourse about the ramifications of potentially distancing myself with my readers and my identity of being mixed-race (“How many people would read a book with a black protagonist?”), the tale of Mr Mole and the Strawberry Sardoodledom, became anthropomorphised, and all traces of race, although the didactic code stayed the same, were dropped.
But, during this process, my viewpoint changed.
How sad it truly was that I had internalised the belief that a black protagonist would not fare in the realm of children’s literature all because I had seen them only exist in the periphery of stories I had read when I was younger.
Within the works of Kenneth Grahame, Lewis Carroll and Rudyard Kipling, any sense of transatlantic culture was, in my eyes, a foreign and cerebral idea. The idyllic English countryside was one of few landscapes only permissible.
As Kathleen Horning stated:
“we expect a white child to find it easy to identify with an animal but not with a black character. Is the child further removed from a person of another race than another species? That’s ludicrous”.[23]
Word count: 4977
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Zipes, Jack. The Irresistible Fairy Tale: The Cultural and Social History of a Genre. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
[1]Marina Warner, Once Upon a Time: A short history of fairy tale (Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 2016), 41.
[2]Jack Zipes, The Irresistible Fairy Tale: The Cultural and Social History of a Genre. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 214.
[3]Peter Hunt, Understanding Children's Literature. (London: Routledge, 2003), 15.
[4]Neil Gaiman, "Why our future depends on libraries, reading and daydreaming." The Guardian, 15th October 2013, accessed 17th April 2023 https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/oct/15/neil-gaiman-future-libraries-reading-daydreaming.
[5]Gaiman, ‘Why our future depends on libraries, reading and daydreaming’.
[6]Maria Nikolajeva, Children’s Literature Comes of Age: Toward a New Aesthetic (London: Routledge, 2013), 5.
[7]Roland Barthes, "Death of the Author," in Image, Music, Text, trans. Stephen Heath (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977), 142-148.
[8] David J. Schwartz, ‘On Making Noise’, in Brothers and Beasts, ed. Kate Bernheimer (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2007), 141-146.
[9] Hunt, Peter. Children's Literature: An Illustrated History. Oxford University Press, 2001.
[10] Barbara Wall, The Narrator’s Voice, in The Children’s Literature Reader, ed. David Rudd (New York: Routledge, 2001), 35.
[11] C.S. Lewis, "On Three Ways of Writing for Children," in Of Other Worlds: Essays and Stories, ed. Walter Hooper (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982), 35-44.
[12] Marina Warner, ‘Fairy Tale: A Very Short Introduction | Marina Warner | Talks at Google |’, YouTube, 59:35, posted by Talks at Google, April 18th 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zop-QPDlnFw
[13] Jack Zipes, Fairy Tale as Myth / Myth as Fairy Tale.(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky), 7.
[14] Matthew 26:39 (New International Version).
[15] C.S. Lewis, ‘Answers to Questions on Christianity’ in God in the Dock: Essays on Theology and Ethics, ed. Walter Hooper (Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2014), 54.
[16] Jack Zipes. ‘The Significance of the Fairy Tale’ In The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World, ed. Jack Zipes (New York: Routledge, 1988), 19-35.
[17] Jack Zipes, ‘Setting Standards for Civilization through Fairy Tales’ in Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion: The Classical Genre for Children and the Process of Civilization, 5th Ed. (Great Britain: Routledge, 2012), 40.
[18] The Brothers Grimm, Children's and Household Tales (London: Macmillan & Co, 1979), 4.
[19] Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 67.
[20] Aesop, The Tortoise and The Hare, in Aesop's Fables, trans. Laura Gibbs (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 18.
[21] Leslie Bow, ‘Racial Abstraction and Species Difference: Anthropomorphic Animals in Multicultural Children’s Literature’. American Literature 91.2 (2019): 324, accessed 2nd May 2023, doi 10.1215/00029831-7529167
[22] Maria Nikolajeva, The Rhetoric of Character in Children's Literature (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2002), 9.
[23] Kathleen T. Horning, "The Diversity Gap in Children's Book Publishing, 2019," (Cooperative Children's Book Centre, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2020), 3.
